Altruism is a fascinating concept that has intrigued psychologists for decades. Why are some people willing to help others without expecting anything in return? What motivations underlie this seemingly selfless behavior? Throughout history, several theories have been proposed to try to explain altruism and its different facets. In this article, we will explore eight theories of altruism that have emerged in the field of psychology, analyzing the possible reasons why people may feel the need to help others without expecting any reward.
1. Theory of biological altruism
One of the most prominent theories in the study of altruism is the theory of biological altruism, proposed by British biologist William D. Hamilton in the 1960s. According to this theory, altruism It may have evolutionary roots to the extent that altruistic individuals can increase the probability of survival of their genes by helping close relatives who share a significant portion of their genetic material. This concept is known as "kin selection" and suggests that altruism may be an evolutionary strategy to ensure the transmission of one's genes to future generations.
1.1. Examples in nature
The theory of biological altruism is clearly illustrated in numerous examples of altruistic behavior in the animal kingdom. For example, worker bees are willing to sacrifice their lives to protect the queen bee, who shares most of their genetic material. Likewise, animals that live in social groups, such as wolves or dolphins, often exhibit altruistic behaviors toward conspecifics to which they are closely genetically related.
2. Social Exchange Theory
Another theory relevant to the study of altruism is social exchange theory, which is based on the premise that people are motivated by reciprocity in their social interactions. According to this theory, people help others because they expect to receive similar help or benefits in the future. In other words, altruism can be understood as a form of social investment, where people contribute to mutual aid to create an environment of cooperation and reciprocity that will ultimately benefit them.
2.1. Costs and benefits of altruism
From the perspective of social exchange theory, altruism is conceived as an act in which potential costs and benefits are weighed. People are willing to help others as long as they perceive that the future benefits of their action outweigh the present costs of providing help. This underlying logic of altruism is observed in emergency situations, such as natural disasters, where solidarity and mutual aid are essential for collective survival.
3. Emotional Altruism Theory
Emotional altruism theory suggests that people experience positive emotions when helping others, which in turn reinforces and motivates their altruistic behavior. According to this theory, the act of helping activates brain circuits related to pleasure and reward, which generates a feeling of well-being and satisfaction in the altruistic individual. In this way, altruism can be a source of emotional gratification that promotes its repetition in the future.
3.1. The helper's high theory
A phenomenon related to the theory of emotional altruism is known as "helper's high", which describes the feeling of euphoria and well-being that people experience after helping others. This sensation is associated with the release of endorphins and other neurotransmitters in the brain, which contributes to a feeling of happiness and fulfillment. The helper's high may act as positive reinforcement for altruistic behavior and partly explain why people continue to selflessly help others.
4. Reciprocal Altruism Theory
The theory of reciprocal altruism, proposed by psychologist Robert Trivers in the 1970s, argues that altruism can arise from the expectation of reciprocity in social interactions. According to this theory, people are willing to help others even without expecting an immediate reward, trusting that in the future they will receive similar treatment from those they helped. Reciprocal altruism is a balancing mechanism in social relationships that fosters cooperation and mutual trust.
4.1. The iterated prisoner's dilemma
A classic example that illustrates the dynamics of reciprocal altruism is the iterated prisoner's dilemma, a theoretical game in which two players must decide whether to cooperate or betray their opponent. In repeated dilemma scenarios, it has been shown that the most effective long-term strategy is cooperation, as it allows mutual benefits to be maximized over time. Reciprocal altruism is essential in building lasting and satisfying relationships between individuals.
5. Norm-Based Altruism Theory
The norm-based altruism theory explores how social and cultural norms influence people's altruistic behavior. According to this theory, social norms establish expectations and rules of conduct that encourage mutual help and solidarity among members of a community. Norm-based altruism is based on the idea that people internalize values such as empathy, justice, and reciprocity, which leads them to act altruistically based on current social norms and expectations.
5.1. Effect of social conformism
Social conformism plays a crucial role in the theory of norm-based altruism, as people tend to adhere to the predominant norms and values in their social environment. When mutual aid and solidarity are promoted and rewarded in a society, people are more likely to act altruistically to meet those social norms and expectations. Norm-based altruism reflects the influence of culture and society in the formation of altruistic patterns of behavior.
6. Selfish Altruism Theory
Despite its apparent contradiction, selfish altruism theory suggests that altruistic behavior can be motivated by long-term personal or selfish interests. From this perspective, people may help others not only out of generosity or empathy, but also because they perceive that altruistic help will bring them tangible or intangible personal benefits in the future. Egoistic altruism implies a balance between concern for others and the optimization of one's own individual interests.
6.1. Advantages of selfish altruism
Selfish altruism can manifest itself in various forms, such as the positive social reputation that is obtained by helping others, the construction of support networks that can be beneficial in the future, or personal satisfaction derived from altruistic acts. When people perceive that altruism can generate significant personal benefits, they are more inclined to display altruistic behaviors toward others. Egoistic altruism highlights the interaction between individual interests and the common well-being in altruistic motivations.
7. Intrinsic motivation theory
Intrinsic motivation theory holds that altruism can be driven by the sense of personal satisfaction and fulfillment that comes from helping others. According to this theory, people experience intrinsic motivation when they engage in altruistic activities that are aligned with their personal values and beliefs. The satisfaction derived from acting in a selfless manner becomes a powerful motive to continue manifesting altruistic behaviors in the future.
7.1. Flow and commitment in altruism
The concept of flow, developed by psychologist Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, is closely related to the theory of intrinsic motivation in the context of altruism. Flow describes a mental state of complete immersion and concentration in an activity, in which the individual experiences a high level of satisfaction and enjoyment. When people help others and feel completely committed to that altruistic action, they can experience flow, which reinforces their intrinsic motivation to continue helping and contributing to the well-being of others.
8. Compassion and Empathy Theory
The Compassion and Empathy Theory explores the influence of emotions such as compassion and empathy on people's altruistic behavior. According to this theory, the ability to put yourself in the shoes of others and feel empathy towards their situations and needs can motivate people to help selflessly. Compassion and empathy are powerful emotions that facilitate emotional connection and solidarity with others, which in turn can drive altruistic behavior.
8.1. Other Identification Theory
Other identification theory suggests that people are more likely to help those with whom they identify emotionally or share similarities in terms of experiences or personal characteristics. Identification with the other can increase empathy and compassion towards that person, which in turn facilitates the manifestation of altruistic behaviors. The ability to put yourself in the shoes of another and understand their needs and emotions is fundamental in the development of altruistic compassion and empathy.
In conclusion, altruism is a complex phenomenon that can be influenced by multiple factors, such as evolutionary roots, social norms, emotions and intrinsic motivations. Through the different theories of altruism presented in this article, the diversity of approaches and perspectives from which altruistic behavior in human beings can be analyzed and understood is evident. Despite its nuances and complexities, altruism remains a fundamental aspect of human nature that reflects the ability of people to connect, cooperate, and help each other in pursuit of the common well-being.