In the field of argumentation and rhetoric, informal fallacies play a crucial role. They are logical errors or manipulations that are committed when trying to persuade someone or when presenting an argument. Identifying these fallacies is essential to be able to critically analyze the messages we receive in debates, discussions or the media. In this article, we will explore the 20 most important types of informal fallacies, with examples and detailed explanations of each.
Relevance Fallacies
Relevance fallacies occur when the argument presents information that is not relevant to the proposed conclusion. This diverts attention from the central point and can lead to erroneous conclusions. Some of the most common relevance fallacies are:
1. Argumentum ad Hominem
This fallacy involves attacking the person presenting the argument rather than refuting the argument itself. For example, "We should not believe in Juan's ideas because he is a liar".
2. Argumentum ad Baculum
In this fallacy, threats or force are used to persuade someone instead of arguing logically. For example, "If you don't agree with me, I'll fire you".
Ambiguity fallacies
Ambiguity fallacies are based on the use of ambiguous words or phrases that can lead to erroneous interpretations. Some examples of fallacies of ambiguity are:
3. Equivocation
This fallacy occurs when it is assumed that a term has the same meaning in two different contexts. For example, "The eagle is a free animal, therefore, the free being is like an eagle".
4. Amphibology
In this fallacy, a statement is ambiguous due to the structure of the sentence. For example, "I saw my sister with a telescope". Who has the telescope, the person who sees or the sister who is seen?
Fallacias of presumption
Fallacias of presumption are based on unjustified assumptions to reach a conclusion. Some examples of fallacies of presumption are:
5. Petitio Principii
Also known as a vicious circle, this fallacy consists of assuming as true what you are trying to prove. For example, "Only God is capable of creating life, therefore, life was created by God".
6. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam
This fallacy is based on arguing that something is true only because the opposite has not been proven. For example, "We cannot prove that aliens do not exist, therefore they must exist".
Causal fallacies
Causal fallacies are committed by assuming a causal relationship. without enough evidence. Some examples are:
7. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc
This fallacy assumes that if one event happens before another, then the first is the cause of the second. For example, "I took a medicine and the next day I got better, therefore the medicine cured me".
8. Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc
This fallacy assumes that if two events occur at the same time, one must cause the other. For example, "The crime rate increased when the law was passed, therefore the law caused the increase in crime."
Generalization Fallacies
Fallacies of generalization are based on drawing general conclusions from insufficient individual examples. Some examples of generalization fallacies are:
9. Inadequate Sample
This fallacy is committed when inferring general conclusions from a small or non-representative sample. For example, "I tried an apple and it was sour, therefore all apples must be sour".
10. Hasty Generalization
In this fallacy, you generalize from insufficient or anecdotal evidence. For example, "I know a smoker who lived to be 90 years old, therefore smoking is not harmful to health".
Fallacias of structure
The fallacies of structure occur when the form of the argument is incorrect, regardless of the content. Some examples of fallacies of structure are:
11. Non Sequitur
In this fallacy, the conclusion does not logically follow from the premises presented. For example, "All humans have souls, dogs also have souls, therefore dogs are humans".
12. False dilemma
This fallacy presents two options as if they were the only possible ones, ignoring other alternatives. For example, "If you are not with us, you are against us".
Quantity fallacies
Quantity fallacies are based on manipulating the amount of information presented to arrive at to an erroneous conclusion. Some examples are:
13. Argument ad Populum
This fallacy is committed by appealing to the popularity of an idea instead of its truthfulness. For example, "Everyone is in favor of this plan, so it must be a good idea".
14. Argument ad Verecundiam
In this fallacy, an appeal is made to a person's authority rather than solid evidence to support an argument. For example, "My doctor recommended this product to me, therefore it must be effective".
Modal fallacies
Modal fallacies are based on manipulating modal terms as a possibility. , certainty or necessity to mislead. Some examples are:
15. Argumentum ad Speculum
This fallacy is committed by assuming that a statement is true because it is what one wants to believe. For example, "I want the weather to be sunny tomorrow, therefore the forecast will be wrong if it predicts rain".
16. Argumentum ad Baculum
In this fallacy, threats or coercion are used to persuade, instead of valid arguments. For example, "If you don't agree with me, I'll fire you".
Modality fallacies
Modality fallacies are based on manipulating modal terms such as possibility, certainty, or necessity to reach an erroneous conclusion. Some examples of modal fallacies are:
17. Argumentum ad Nauseam
This fallacy is committed by repeating an argument so many times that it seems more convincing than it really is. For example, "This product is the best, this product is the best, this product is the best..."
18. Argumentum ad Misericordiam
In this fallacy, an attempt is made to gain sympathy instead of presenting solid arguments. For example, "They should exempt me from the traffic ticket because I am a good and hard-working person". the discussion towards a different topic to avoid the original argument. Some examples are:
19. Red Herring
In this fallacy, an irrelevant topic is introduced to distract attention from the issue at hand. For example, "Yes, I made a mistake, but have you seen how much the economy has grown recently?"
20. Tu Quoque
This fallacy is committed by diverting attention from oneself by pointing out the faults of the other. For example, "You smoke too, why should I listen to you when you talk about the dangers of tobacco?".
In conclusion, informal fallacies are common tools of manipulation and logical errors that we must learn to avoid. identify and avoid. By knowing and understanding these 20 types of fallacies, we will be better prepared to critically analyze the arguments presented to us in various situations. The ability to detect and counter these fallacies is essential for critical thinking and making informed decisions in our daily lives.